Week 5 Lecture Notes for Tuesday
The Great French Revolution—rights, liberty, and conflicts over their definition and limits
Lecture Outline:
I. The Great French Revolution, 1789-1799
A) Causes
1)
"rigid" system of
legal privileges based upon system of 3 "estates" (clergy, nobles,
commoners), and King Louis XVI's claims to absolutist power
2) fundamental social and economic tensions (noble fear of losing privilege, middle class lack of political power, artisans pressed by growth of merchant-driven market economy, peasant resentments re. taxes, tithes, and land). Moreover, France is a "kingdom" with no real sense of "national" unity or identity, and remains fragmented by language, culture, etc.
3)
growth of "liberal"
public opinion—the spread of Enlightenment ideas re. rights, liberty, limited
state power, need for rational administrative reforms, laissez-faire economic
policies, etc.
4) state financial crisis—need to increase revenues leads to discussion of taxing nobles (etc)
B) First Phase ("moderate revolution"), 1789-1792
1)
revolt of the nobility --nobles
refuse to accept Louis XVI's proposed fiscal and tax reforms
2) the gathering of the Estates General –Louis XVI tries to do an "end run" around the nobility by gathering the E-G to approve his reforms. But the majority of the 1st and 2nd estates intend to use the E-G to protect their privileges, and the majority of the 3rd estate intend to use it to force fundamental political change. Seiyes document, "What is the Third Estate," lays out the view of this movement for political transformation. Debate over "doubling the 3rd"
3)
the 20 June 1789 Tennis Court
Oath—Louis XVI understands threat posed by the E-G (esp. by the 3rd
estate) and attempts to shut it down. In
the "Oath," the E-G (esp. 3rd estate) declares itself
a "NATIONAL" assembly and says it will keep meeting until it rights a
constitution.
4) the July 1789 Paris uprising—Louis XVI understands that a constitution will limit his power, that he must stop the "Nat. Assembly," and prepares troops to shut it down. Rumor of this sparks demonstrations, led by the middle class but with the lower-classes providing most of the crowds; these turn into street fighting, and "the people" take control of Paris, defeat the army and police, and declare a "provisional" revolutionary city government (again, under middle-class leadership). The social context—2 years of bad harvests had forced up food prices, which led to a general economic depression—about 1/3 of workers in Paris were unemployed in summer 1789, and food (etc) prices has skyrocketed. Lower classes saw the King as failing to help "the people," and viewed the National Assembly as the voice of the People—they felt that the "tyrant" King was trying to silence the People and take their Liberty, and so the revolt…
5) reverberations of the revolution in the provinces --provincial urban uprisings, the Great Fear, peasant attacks to seize land and drive out the nobility
6) the 26
August 1789 Declaration of Rights of Man ends the "estate
system"—all men born equal in rights, purpose of government is to protect
rights, the nation as source of sovereign power, limits to state power—state
can not deprive men of liberty except under certain conditions, special
reference to property rights
7) the issue of constitutional monarchy—decision to keep the King in place as the executive power in a "constitutional" monarchy, with legislative power exercised by the Assembly.
8) the question of who exercises what rights--restrictions of vote to property owners, but the lower classes clearly see this as "their" revolution, too, and expect that it will give them equal political rights; the best politically organized artisans and shopkeepers see a connection between political rights and social rights (eg, in reaction to food shortages, unemployment, etc).
C) Second Phase (radical or Jacobin revolution), 1792-1794
1)
opposition to the revolution
in France--split in clergy as a result of the 1789-91 laws on the division of
church lands and the "civil constitution of the clergy";
noble opposition to their loss of privilege (etc); King's desire to
restore powers and his "secret" efforts to rally troops vs the
revolution; regional opposition to policies made in Paris and especially to
policies on taxes and on the church. Also, opposition to the Revolution from
abroad, from monarchies (esp. Austria and Prussia) that see the revolution
as a threat to order.
2) the shift to the "left" in Spring 1792—steady shift to the "left" since 1789 among lower classes radicalized by continuing economic crisis; by sense of exclusion from full citizens' rights (most were considered "passive" instead of "active" citizens); by implications of some of the new "laissez-faire" policies (like the laws banning guilds); by fear that there were secret "counter-revolutionaries" among the middle classes who would "hijack" the revolution; by deep belief in the cause of spreading the revolution to all mankind; and by conclusion that the King, the nobles, and the church all seek to crush "their" revolution. This last fear is even greater after the King's failed attempt to "escape" in June 1791. Growing demand from below for a Republic and for universal manhood suffrage.
3)
War with Austria and Prussia.
The dominant factions in the legislature now—the Girondins and the
Jacobins--both want to see the spread of the revolution through Europe.
Both also see war as a means of promoting national unity and pushing
reforms. (But compared to the
Girondins, the Mountain is much more "in-tune" with the call from
below for a Republic and universal manhood suffrage.) The
Girondins dominate the Assembly at the stage, and lead it to a declaration of
war on Austria and Prussia in April 1792. But the war quickly turns sour for
France, which loses battles and territories through spring and summer 1792.
This pushes the radicalization of politics and lower classes even
further.
4)
In August 1792, in response to events, crowds of radical workers and
soldiers attack the royal palace, arrest the King, and demand that the Assembly
declare a Republic and that they hold elections based upon universal manhood
suffrage. With support from the crowds, the Jacobins expel the
Girondins from power take control of the Assembly.
5) Continued lower class demonstrations and popular violence in September 1792; popular elections for a new legislature—the Convention—based upon universal manhood suffrage. The Convention proves much more radical than the Assembly. It declares France a Republic. Jacobins introduce a series of "radical" reforms, including emergency measures to mobilize the economy and society for war. These include mass conscription of soldiers for the army; the "law of the maximum" to fixe prices for food and other necessities; measures to require delivery of goods and services for the war effort, etc. All these measures were justified on the grounds of security—Jacobins said it was necessary to do these things to save the revolution from its enemies. Also, under the Jacobins, the armies of French won major victories in the war, which now spread into a war against Austria, England, Holland, and Spain. But it also faced big internal rebellions, in particular in the western province of the Vendee.
6) the King executed for
treason, January 1793
7) economic and social crisis (soaring food prices and unemployment, peasant rebellions, etc) worsened by the war, leads to shift even further to the “left”; further demonstrations result in the most radical elements of the Jacobins (the Mountain) taking power in the Assembly. The Mountain depends upon grass-roots support from the local "committees," made up largely of artisans and small shopkeepers. These local committees were far more radical in their political demands than were most Jacobin leaders.
8) Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety, July 1793-July 1794. The Assembly appoints the CPS to act as “emergency authority” in the name of the Assembly.
a) Continuation of trend towards emergency economic measures that violate laissez-faire principles in the name to saving the revolution; but also further steps towards democratization, and the abolition of slavery in French colonies.
b) Revolutionary
culture—rejection of organized religion, creation of "civic cult of
virtue," in which great philosophers were treated as quasi-religious
figures and there is public celebration of
"virtues" of the Republic, democracy, honesty, devotion to the
nation, and subsuming ones' self to the "general will" (remember
Rousseau), etc. Symbolic
"rational" reforms and changes come with this—such as reform
of the calendar to "reflect nature," to recognize the founding of the
Republic as "Year One" of a new age in history, etc.
c) But along with the civic cult of virtue" also came a campaign against the "enemies of the people," whose actions--and even ideas and attitudes—were judged to be in violation of the "general will." Not only were real counter-revolutionaries arrested and imprisoned or executed, but thousands of people who month before had been considered loyal citizens were now subject to accusations and condemnations of being enemies and were tried and convicted by "popular tribunals." In all, some 30,000 people were killed in the "Terror," which the Jacobins and their supporters felt would "cleanse" the country and save the Revolution from its enemies. Again, all of this could be justified on the grounds of “national security”—the Jacobins claimed that the rights of individuals had to be sacrificed in order to protect the Revolution…
8) The end of the radical phase, July 1794 The legislature turns on the Committee of Public Safety, executes its members as enemies of the revolution.
D) Third Phase (conservative reaction or Thermidorian revolution), 1794-1799
1)
end to Jacobin emergency
measures (i.e., law of the maximum), but the economy continues to be in almost
constant crisis.
2) new constitution of 1795 places limits on voting rights: voters must be able to read and write; they vote for "electors" (who must have "x" amount of income), who then chose legislators. New constitution reaffirms "rights" but puts greatest stress upon duties that citizens owe to the state. Aim is to put government in hands of propertied classes to provide "stability" and prevent lower class "unrest." Executive body is the "Directory," 5 men chosen by the legislature.
3)
State now repeatedly demonstrates willingness to use violence vs the rebellious
crowd (eg. Napoleon's "whiff of grapeshot" in October 1795).
Directory uses force to crush remnants of popular lower-class radical
movements.
4)
the war continues, and under the military leadership of General Napoleon
Bonaparte, France dominates the land war and wins control of territory across
central and southern Europe.
5) weakness of state leadership—the Directory proves unable to provide stable leadership, and is faced by constant threat of being overthrown from the Right (from monarchists), even once it has destroyed the opposition on the Left. It even has to annul elections in 1797 because of large pro-monarchist vote. By Fall 1799, members of the Directory are willing to support a "coup" to put Napoleon in power. No middle class opposition to the coup, event though it effectively means an end to the revolution and a reduction of political liberty. However, scattered workers’ revolts, which are put down with force.
II. The Napoleonic Era, 1799-1815
A) Napoleon's rise to power as a "man of the Revolution"—who rises in ranks from a junior officer to become a great general on basis of talent and ability. Huge political ambitions. Returns from Egyptian campaign in November 1799 to take part in overthrow of government. As member of the new ruling “Council” he serves as First Counsel (1799-1804). Then in 1804, Napoleon crowns himself Emperor. Manages to make peace with nobles by recognizing their claim to “titles”; makes peace with the church by making agreement with Vatican to recognize its authority over Catholic hierarchy in France; promises economic and political stability to the middle class; promises work and higher living standards to artisans and urban workers; tells peasants that they can keep the land that they gained in 1789. Emperor 1804-1814/15.
B) Napoleon consolidates and spreads the revolution's liberal economic and administrative reforms. Completes much of the administrative reform work of the revolution in France—especially creation of uniform codes of civil law and criminal law (1804) based upon "laissez-faire liberal" principles. He re-organized the state administration -–idea is that entire state to be patterned on the Army—rational hierarchy, "officers" rise on basis of talent and ability, etc. Centralizes administration, reforms tax codes, reforms and centralizes education system. So in many regards he can be seen as continuing thee aims of the revolution. He also uses his military victories to spread these reforms across Europe.
C) Authoritarian rule. At same time that Napoleon institutes “liberal” administrative reforms, he creates a police state. No opposition permitted, network of government spies, censorship, etc. From 1804, all civil servants take an oath to the Emperor. Pretense of constitutional rule, but legislative powers are minimal and real power lay with the Emperor.
D) Over-extension of the
Empire and defeat (1808-1814). Napoleon’s
armies sweep away their enemies. In
1802, France gains peace agreement with England, etc. Napoleon then tries to integrate all French-dominated
territories into one French-controlled economic bloc, designed to hurt England
(the Continental System). Napoleon’s
attitude is that France is the world’s #1 superpower and has the right to
impose its views on all other countries.
In mean time, in addition to imposing new laws on conquered lands, he
also imposes new governments run by his own brothers and sisters.
War breaks out again in 1805,and for two years Napoleon’s armies can
not fail. In 1808, Napoleon invades
Spain and appoints his brother as its new King.
At height in 1812, Napoleon's
Empire controls most of Europe, But
his occupation policies inadvertently promote anti-French nationalism in Spain
and elsewhere. Also, in 1812
Napoleon invades Russia in an attempt to extend French power into Eastern
Europe. The results are
disastrous—by the end of 1812 the remnants of his army was in retreat from
Russia. A long series of military
defeats followed. In Spring 1814
the British, Prussians, and Russians occupied Paris and “restored” the old
monarchy under Louis XVI’s brother (now King Louis XVIII).
Napoleon exiled to island of Elba. In
Spring 1815, Napoleon escaped Elba and retook power in Paris.
But the British and Prussian armies crushed Napoleon’s advancing forces
at Waterloo in June 1815. Napoleon sent into exile in St. Helena (died there in 1821).
CONCLUSIONS:
French revolution as
huge series of conflicts over rights—e.g., who gets them, what do they mean,
and what happens when rights come into conflict with “security”?
French revolution as
source of many western political traditions and terms (e.g., right, left,
center), new concept of Nationalism and the “nation-state.”
French revolution as
most significant late 18th century conflict over the “best”
nature and form of the state. Not
only issue of republic vs monarchy, but issues of centralized vs decentralized
state, nature of state bureaucracy, how far dot he powers of the state extend,
etc.
Jacobin period
represents first example of a “nation” mobilized for “total war.”
Also represents first example of modern political terror.
Napoleonic France
represents first example of a modern police state, of dictatorship with a
“benevolent face.”
Napoleon’s armies did effectively spread principles of the Revolution through much of Europe, so that 1789-1815 was period of massive change not only in France, but across most of Europe.